This item is part of our special edition: “Deciphering Chinese Buddhism”
You can access the previous article in this series through This link
Approximately two thousand years ago, in the busy and bustling streets of the city of Luoyang, then the imperial capital of the Late Han Dynasty, its inhabitants could stop, amazed, before enigmatic figures: Central Asian-looking foreigners, dressed in unusual clothes, shaved heads and serene expressions on their faces. The presence of these unusual individuals was a sign of the beginning of a cultural metamorphosis that would eventually spread throughout East Asia. The arrival of Buddhism to the Central Empire would not only transform China's spiritual landscape, but would also sow the seeds of a tradition that would profoundly influence the cultural and religious evolution of large regions of the world.
The arrival of Buddhism to China is a fascinating story, interwoven with mysteries, myths and legends, but also with historical realities and discoveries. It takes us to a time of great cultural encounters, when ideas traveled along the Silk Road. In this article, we will explore how this spiritual tradition came to China, amidst myths, legends and historical facts. Next, we'll explore some of these narratives.
Myths and Legends: The Arrival of Buddhism in the Chinese Imagination
In Chinese historiography, we find stories that place China's first contacts with Buddhism in times before the dates now considered the most probable, that is, the first century of our era. Some of these narratives date back even to the third century before our era.
In the Liezi (), it is mentioned that Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) was aware of the existence of the Buddha. However, modern scholars agree that this book of apocryphal origin was composed in the 3rd century C.E., or even at a later date. This myth reflects the attempt of late Chinese philosophical traditions to link up with Buddhism.
El Guang Hongming ji () from Daoxuan (), compiled in the 7th century, recounts a legendary episode that supposedly occurred during the reign of the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang (221—210 B.C.E.). According to the text, some Śramaṇas foreigners, dressed in a distinctive way and carrying Buddhist sutras, would have arrived in the capital. The emperor, reluctant to accept their doctrine, imprisoned them. However, they escaped thanks to the intervention of a mysterious and supernatural “Golden Man”. Impressed by the prodigy, the emperor would have shown respect by bowing his head and offering an apology. Although it has been speculated that these foreigners may have been emissaries of King Ashoka (268—232 B.C.E.), there is no evidence to support this. Modern historiography considers this story to be a later apologetic construction rather than a reliable historical testimony.
The best-known and most influential account of an early introduction of Buddhism to China is undoubtedly that of the dream of Emperor Ming (he reigned 57 to 75 C.E.). The story goes that this emperor of the late Han dynasty dreamt of “a golden, luminous and tall figure flying towards his palace”. His ministers interpreted it as the Buddha and, therefore, the emperor sent an expedition to India to bring Buddhist teachings to China. According to the story, his emissaries returned to China in 67 C.E., along with two Indian Buddhist monks, Kāśyapa Mātanga and Dharmarathon (or Gobharaṇa), who brought with them Buddhist scriptures and statues of the Buddha, carried on a white horse.
Already in China, these monks translated the Sutra of the Forty-Two Sections that they had brought with them. To house them and translate the scriptures, the emperor ordered the construction of the Temple of the White Horse ( Báimäris) in Luoyang, which still exists and is generally considered the first Buddhist temple in China, thus marking an essential milestone in the spread of Buddhism in the country. Scholars question the verisimilitude of this story because of the numerous contradictions in the dates and details presented in the different sources that collect it. In addition, the fact that the ministers identified the golden figure with the Buddha would imply that they were already aware of this tradition. However, the story symbolizes the beginning of the official interest in Buddhism in the Chinese court.
According to a legend collected in the Weishu () (“History of the Kingdom of Wei”) by Wei Shou (506-572), China would have had contact with Buddhism earlier than most accepted historical sources suggest. The story states that the explorer Zhang Qian, sent in 138 B.C.E. to Yuezhi territory to open trade routes to the west, reported the existence of Buddhism in India upon his return to China. This event, according to the narrative, would have been the first time that the Chinese had heard of this religious tradition. However, there is no historical evidence to support this claim. As Zürcher (1959:20-21) points out, modern historiography considers this story to be a later construction that seeks to explain the early contact between China and Buddhism.
In accordance with the Shishui Xinyu () [New Account of the World's Tales (Literature)], compiled and edited by Liu Yiqing (403—444), in 120 B.C.E., the general of the Han Dynasty, Huo Qubing (140—117 B.C.E.), defeated the Xiongnu and captured their king. According to the story, in the monarch's chambers, Huo found a golden statue, which he took back to China. It is said that the Xiongnu offered him incense and ceremonial obeisances, not sacrifices. Some have speculated that this statue could have been an image of the Buddha. However, most scholars doubt this identification, since Buddhism had not yet spread significantly in the Chinese world at that time, and the statue may have had a different religious meaning for the Xiongnu.
These fascinating stories were probably invented centuries after the alleged events, when Buddhism had already established itself in China. The Buddhists of the Wei, Southern Jin, and Northern Jin dynasties (3rd to 5th centuries) competed with Taoists for imperial favor, and they used these legends to give Buddhism an air of antiquity and prestige and explain their entry into the Chinese court and society (Zürcher 1959:19). At other times, they reflect the desire of Taoists and Confucians to show superiority or precedence to Buddhism. In addition, they express China's fascination with foreigners, as well as the desire to legitimize a new religion in the Chinese context.
These fascinating stories were probably invented centuries after the alleged events, when Buddhism had already established itself in China. The Buddhists of the Wei, Southern Jin, and Northern Jin dynasties (3rd to 5th centuries) competed with Taoists for imperial favor, and they used these legends to give Buddhism an air of antiquity and prestige and explain their entry into the Chinese court and society (Zürcher 1959:19). At other times, they reflect the desire of Taoists and Confucians to show superiority or precedence to Buddhism. In addition, they express China's fascination with foreigners, as well as the desire to legitimize a new religion in the Chinese context.
Historical Reality: Following the Clues
So, in what historical period can we say with certainty that Buddhism arrived in China? Historians have found reliable clues that bring us closer to reality. Some of the evidence presented comes from semi-official sources written by officials who had no particular interest in Buddhist issues or who only mentioned them tangentically in the context of other discourses.
In the Sanguozhi(“Record of the Three Kingdoms”) by Pei Songzi (372-451) it is mentioned that in the year 2 B.C.E., a student of the imperial academy named Jinglu received Buddhist teachings from an emissary of the king of Scythia. Some Chinese scholars consider this story to be proof of an early introduction of Buddhism to China. However, experts like Zürcher question this story. This is due to the lack of records in early historical documents of the Han Dynasty and the fact that the Sanguozhi was compiled several centuries after the alleged events. On the other hand, Guangxing considers it plausible, given that the Scythians had adopted Buddhism and trade routes existed between China and Asia before it was established in China.
According to the Hou Hanshu (), a history book of the Han dynasty written by Fan Ye (; 398-445), Prince Liu Ying (), son of Emperor Guangwu (; reigned 25-57 C.E.), was already practicing Buddhism in 65 C.E. It is said that he offered silk rolls to support Buddhist monks and devotees, demonstrating the presence of a Buddhist community in the imperial court. This fact indicates that Buddhism was not only present in China around the middle of the first century C.E., but it was also beginning to gain influential followers in society.
In the Houhanshu It is mentioned that, in the year 166 C.E., an official named Xiang Kai reported the existence of altars in the imperial court in the year 166 C.E. These altars were dedicated not only to the Yellow Emperor, Laozi and Chinese deities, but also to the Buddha. This reflects that Buddhist teachings were already known and practiced in the upper circles of Chinese society and demonstrates a growing acceptance of this new spiritual tradition.
Another indication of the spread of Buddhism during this period can be found in the work of the poet Zhang Heng (; 78-139 C.E.). Known for his literary and scientific innovation, Zhang Heng used Buddhist terms and concepts in his writings around 100 C.E., suggesting that these ideas were already familiar to the general public. Although he was not necessarily a Buddhist practitioner, his use of these terms shows that Buddhism had begun to influence the language and thought of the time, even in non-religious fields such as literature and philosophy.
In addition to literary and historical references, archaeological evidence has been found that demonstrates how Buddhism began to integrate into Chinese culture towards the end of the 2nd century CE. Among these, tombs decorated with Buddhist iconography stand out, reflecting not only the presence of this religious tradition, but also its growing influence on the thinking and aesthetics of the time. These artistic manifestations suggest that, although Buddhism was initially a foreign religion, it was already being reinterpreted and adapted to the Chinese cultural context.
A prominent example of this archaeological evidence was presented in 1980 by researcher Yu Weichao () in his article entitled “Examination of Eastern Han Buddhist Iconography” (*), published in the journal Wenwu (, No. 5, 1980). In this essay, I have collected and analyzed numerous pieces of early Buddhist iconography. Among these is a tomb in Helinger, Inner Mongolia, dating from 168 to 189 C.E., during the Eastern Han Dynasty. This tomb contains images that represent a Buddha or bodhisattva and refer to the Buddhist iconography of Central Asia and India.
Finally, the Lihuolun de Mouzi mentions the availability of Buddhist scriptures in China, suggesting a rapid development of Buddhism towards the end of the Han Dynasty and during the Wei Dynasty. Although some question its authenticity, the Lihuolun you describe the situation of Buddhism in Southern China in a similar way to other historical texts.
Conclusion
Historical evidence indicates that Buddhism began its presence in China around the 1st century CE, and that its arrival cannot be attributed to a specific event or date. It was a gradual process, driven mainly by Buddhist traders from Central Asia traveling the Silk Road, who carried these ideas and accompanied monks from the western to the eastern regions of the country.
Initially, Buddhism took root among popular communities, who adopted it through devotional practices and rituals, before imperial officials began to record it in official historical texts. This process not only involved the arrival of monks, texts and sacred objects, but also the adaptation of Buddhist teachings to the cultural, social and philosophical needs of China, which marked the beginning of its transformation into a tradition deeply integrated into Chinese thought.
This process of introducing and transforming Buddhism in China is an example of how spiritual traditions evolve as they interact with new cultures. The Buddhism that arrived in China was not identical to the one that left India: it adapted and evolved as it passed through Central Asia and was further enriched by interacting with Chinese traditions, such as Confucianism and Taoism. This interaction gave rise to unique Buddhist schools, such as Chan, that not only flourished in China, but also profoundly influenced other Asian cultures and are still relevant in the contemporary world.
In addition to its spiritual impact, Buddhism left a profound mark on China's material culture. Temple architecture, sculptural art, wall paintings, and philosophical and devotional literature flourished under his influence, giving rise to an artistic and cultural legacy that still endures. Prominent examples of this heritage are the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang and the Longmen and Yungang Caves. These sites not only reflect the aesthetic richness of Buddhism, but they also show how this spiritual tradition became a transformative force that shaped China's cultural identity.
The story of the arrival and adaptation of Buddhism to China reminds us that ideas, like people, travel, transform and evolve. This process of exchange and cultural enrichment invites us to reflect on the power of spiritual traditions to cross borders and adapt to new contexts. In an increasingly globalized world, this story offers us an important lesson: spiritual teachings are not static, but dynamic, and can continue to find ways to enrich our lives and help us face contemporary challenges.
Recommended Bibliography
- Zürcher, Erik (1959). The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China. Leiden: Brill. [Reissue: 2007]
- Ch'en, Kenneth (1964). Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Nattier, Jan (2008). “Who Produced the Da Mingdu jing (T225)? A Reassessment of the Evidence”. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 31 (1-2), pp. 295-337.
- Liu, Xinru (1988). Ancient India and Ancient China: Trade and Religious Exchanges, AD 1-600. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
You can read the next article in this series by doing cClick here
